The illustrations on this page have been compiled from a variety of sources and are used for educational purposes only.
If advised that copyright has been infringed I will immediately remove the particular illustration(s).
C: Chalcolithic / Early Bronze Age Levant Constellations
3: Lion iconography as constellation?
Introduction
In her 2002 doctoral thesis "The moon and stars of the southern Levant at Gezer and Megiddo: Cultural astronomy in Chalcolithic/Early and Middle Bronze Ages." (based on her archaeological experience at both sites) Sara Gardner identifies certain pavement drawings at Gezer and Megiddo as representations of constellations. (Particularly a drawing of a lion at Gezer which dates from 1600 BCE and another drawing of a lion at Megiddo which is dated to the Chalcolithic Period.) Sara Gardner holds that astronomy was used in the southern Levant before any significant contact with the civilisations of either Egypt or Mesopotamia. However, it is generally accepted that in the Jamdat Nasr period particularly, i.e., about 3200 BCE the evidence of cylinder seal impressions found in Megiddo and in Byblos shows there was strong Mesopotamian influence in the Levant in what is now modern-day Syria and Palestine. This is also recognised as the time during which the art of late Predynastic Egypt was being assimilated to Mesopotamian models.
The southern Levant basically encompasses the territory of modern-day Israel and Jordan. The Chalcolithic Period covers circa 4500-3500 BCE; the Early Bronze Age covers circa 3000-2000 BCE; and the Middle Bronze Age covers circa 2000-1500 BCE. Two important archaeological sites are at Gezer and Megiddo. Gezer is located on the edge of the foothills of the Judean Range, 3 kms south south east of Ramaleh. Megiddo is the only site in the southern Levant that is mentioned by every great power in the ancient Near East. This is undoubtedly because Megiddo guarded the Via Maria - the important highway that connected Egypt with Mesopotamia.
Images of the sun, the moon and the stars are common decoration motifs in the southern Levant from as early as the Chalcolithic Period. As decorating motifs they are found on pavements, walls, pottery, and seals.
Teleilat el-Ghassul
An example of the use of the star motif is the numerous star depictions found at Teleilat el-Ghassul (an archaeological site in modern-day Jordan, located in the lower Jordan Valley northeast of, and close to, the Dead Sea) dating to the 4th millennium BCE. Teleilat el-Ghassul was occupied till circa 2000 BCE. The undistinguished 50-acre site is the largest known Chalcolithic site in the Jordan Valley.
Eight-pointed star painted on interior wall at Teleilat el-Ghassul.
The main design motif at Teleilat el-Ghassul is an elaborate eight-pointed star. Inside one building there is an unusual wall painting of an eight-pointed "star" within a larger eight-pointed "star," culminating in a burst of eight rays. The murals with the star depictions were discovered during the 1931-1932 and 1932-1933 excavations.
A particular example of the star as a decoration motif is the particular wall sized painting (mural) of a star at Teleilat el-Ghassul. The most outstanding wall painting is the so-called Star of Ghassul. It is almost 2 metres across and is surrounded by various mythological creatures. The star is painted with red, black, and white mineral paints. The function of this particular painting is unknown.
"Fresco fragments were executed in many rooms, and it was assumed that the paintings were executed in a domestic context. These wall paintings, it should be noted, were not single creations. Rather, they were continuously plastered over and repainted. ... It has recent been speculated that the painted rooms were in fact shrines situated within the dense building clusters. ... The most remarkable segment is the star fresco. It consists of a large eight pointed [i.e., rayed] star, 1.84 meters in diameter. [It is located on a west wall that is opposite an eastern entrance.] Its center is composed of concentric circles and contains two more eight-pointed stars. The innermost star is white on a black background; the second is white, bordered with black, on a red cross-hatched background; and the outermost star has alternating red and black rays. [The star is surrounded by depictions of masks, animals, and temples and these testify to the cultic nature of the painting and the room.] The execution is most precise." (Rivka Gonen "The Chalcolithic Period." In: Amnon Ben-Tor (Editor). The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. (1992) (Chapter 3).)
In another building, on the west wall, a painted wall mural depicts a row of people (the first two of whom are seated) and a luminary (either the sun or the moon, and indicated by a double circle) rising above what are obviously mountains. Also, there is a (faint) depiction of a rayed sun or star behind a another person. It is possible that a cultic ceremony is being depicted.
Gezer
A votive altar (incense altar) with a star-motif (star-like object) on it was discovered at Gezer. The star-motif (star-like object) is in the field (or background). Included in this particular iconography is a badly drawn lion with a man. According to one interpretation the lion in the foreground is being slain. The lion is depicted with a shoulder ornament (a second star) that may have an astral significance. The shoulder ornament (star) has been interpreted as the star Regulus. which also marks the shoulder of the lion constellation Leo. However, the depiction of shoulder (or body) ornaments on lions does not conclusively demonstrate an astral significance. The application of example-by-example analysis throughout the ancient Near East indicates that the depiction of shoulder ornamentation on lions can denote (but not always) an astral significance. This votive altar at Gezer (with badly drawn lion and star-like object) has been incorrectly dated to circa 7th-century BCE but correctly is to be dated to circa 1600 BCE-1400 BCE.. A lion figure is also etched on a paving stone at Megiddo and dated to the Early Bronze Age.
A depiction on a votive altar at Gezer is comprised of a badly drawn lion with a man, with a star-like object in the background. The lion is depicted with a shoulder ornament that can denote (but not always) an astral significance. This votive altar (and iconography) at Gezer has been incorrectly dated to circa 7th-century BCE by some but correctly is dated to 1400 BCE. (See: Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel by O. Keel and C. Uehlinger (1998, Page 331, Figure 372.) Sara Gardner believes that the star-like object depicted in the background above the lion is the sun rising at the time of the summer solstice above the constellation of the lion. (She believes the ornament (astral image) on the body of the lion is most probably the star Regulus or the heart of the lion.) (The identification of lion iconography with the constellation Leo is not uncommon speculation.) A different plausible interpretation is that the star-like object above the lion is Venus. Franz Kugler in his booklet Sibyllinischer Sternkampf und Phaëthon in naturgeschichtlicher Beleuchtung (1927) shows that in the ancient Near East the lion was associated with Venus as morning star. The identification with a comet has also been made.
Megiddo
Paving stones at the Bronze Age city of Megiddo are believed by Sara Gardner to contain representations of astral images. The date of the pavement at Megiddo where the figures appear date to the Chalcolithic Period (3400-3300 BCE).
Megiddo has a large paved open area sloping eastwards toward Mount Tabor and Mount Moreh. A stone altar was situated in the centre of the pavement. Thirty-six of the paving stones located at the stone altar (at the cult centre at Megiddo) are incised with a variety of figures (both human and animal) and geometric shapes. Five are astral symbols that include representations of stars, comets, and the crescent moon. A lion figure is also etched on a paving stone at Megiddo (dated by some to the Early Bronze Age). Sara Gardner holds that the constellation Leo appears on the Chalcolithic pavements at Megiddo (dating to 3,300 BCE). "To date the earliest image of a single lion juxtaposed across from a man is found at Megiddo. Generally, the man is identified as either a fallen enemy or a king/hero ("The moon and stars of the southern Levant at Gezer and Megiddo by Sara Gardner (2002, Page 133)."
Three of the figures at the stone altar have astral symbols: (1) a figure with a harp (lyre) ("Megiddo Harper") in upraised left hand appears with the crescent moon to his right; (2) a star symbol appears to the right of 3 human figures (which partly surround it); and (3) a star appears together with an irregular rectangle. (These are dated circa 3300 BCE.) Sara Gardner identifies the figure of a Harper at Megiddo with the constellation Orion.
Sara Gardner's interpretation of the lion and fallen man (enemy?) iconography at Megiddo as a constellation depiction (imposed over the constellation Leo). She believes the lion constellation can be dated to the Chalcolithic Period in the southern Levant. In her interpretation the lion is equivalent to the zodiacal Leo. The man is usually identified as a fallen enemy or king/hero. The top right 'streaming' shape is believed by Sara Gardner to be a depiction of a comet, possibly Halley's comet. (Illustration of the Megiddo drawing imposed over the constellation Leo is used with the permission of the copyright © holder Dr Sara L. Gardner.)
Depiction of comet on paving stone at Megiddo? On the right is a female carrying a staff (or spear?). The towards top left 'streaming' shape is believed by Sara Gardner to be a depiction of a comet, possibly Halley's comet. (Illustration of the Megiddo drawing of a female (warrior?) carrying a staff is used with the permission of the copyright © holder Dr Sara L. Gardner.)
Leopard Temple
In a recent posting on the Internet (2009) Sara Gardner stated she also believes the "Leopard temple" in the Negev (semi-desert region of southern Israel) and Sinai (desert land that is Israel's border with Egypt) are celestial images on the ground but is currently unable to make any further interpretation. The so-called "Leopard temple" in the Uvda Valley in the Negev is dated to circa 7,000 BCE, and amongst the stones bearing carvings of feline figures there is also a carving of a leopard. The leopard was identified by having darker stones to emphasise where the spots were. (The leopard was common in the Levant in biblical times and survived in Palestine up till at least circa 1950. A small population of Sinai leopards still exist (2007) in the Sinai Peninsula.)
Summary
Sara Gardner only identifies 1 figure at Gezer as an astral image. This is the lion figure from circa 1600 BCE onwards which she connects with the stars of our constellation Leo. Sara Gardner does not identify any other drawings at Gezer, such as the drawings of animals (referred to as graffiti) in Cave 30:IV at Gezer, as representations of constellations. (There is a possibility though that additionally the animal graffiti in Cave 30:IV can also be identified as constellations.) Sara Gardner identifies 2 constellation figures at Megiddo from circa 3300 BCE onwards: (1) lion, and (2) harper. Needless to say these constellation identifications are somewhat subjective. There is a possibility if the examples given for constellations are actually late they may have been influenced by Babylonian uranography.
See also: "Scratching the Surface of Astronomy in the Land of the Bible: Archaeology, Texts, and Astronomy." by Sara Gardner In: Current Studies in Archaeoastronomy: Conversations Across Time and Space edited by John Fountain and Rolf Sinclair (2005; Pages 393-411).
Appendix 1
The Sumerian term mul.mul "The Stars" (= Pleiades) occurs in a Sumerian-Eblaite list as an equivalent of the Eblaite term mul ka-ma-tu "The Family." Four more entries in lexical lists from may be names for stars in Sumerian. (Of the 15,000 tablets recovered from Ebla approximately 80% are written in Sumerian. The date of the tablets is circa 2250 BCE.)
Also, the astral god kakkab was worshipped at Ebla.
During the 3rd-millennium BCE the city of Ebla in Syria was the third ranking civilization centre in the Near East. The 2 two higher ranking civilization centres were Mesopotamia (Bilad al-Rafidayn, the cradle of civilisation) and Pharaonic Egypt.
Appendix 2
Recent (2010) archaeological finds in the northern Jordan Valley indicate that the ancient site of Pella was a formidable city-state and urbanised (a massive mega-city) circa 3600 BCE until civilisation there abruptly stopped circa 2800 BCE (due to possibly a devastating earthquake and climate change).
Appendix 3:
Lions depicted on early Bronze Age bowl recovered from Gyumri, Armenia.
Appendix 4:
Abstract of paper "The Tuleilat al-Ghassul Star Painting: an Hypothesis of a Solar Calendar in the IV millennium BC." presented by Andrea Polcaro, at the 56 Reconcontre Assyriologique Internationale, Barcelona, Time and History in the Ancient Near East, 26th-30th July, 2010: "The study presented in this paper is an analysis of the "Star Painting" in the Late Chalcolithic Tuleilat al-Ghassul site, Jordan. The paintings of this site, first investigated in the '30s by the archaeological mission of Pontifical Biblical Institute and then from the '70s by University of Sydney, has been analyzed in order to understand the complex symbolic value of the represented scenes. The Tuleilat al-Ghassul sacred area, including two temples and a paved avenue leading from the main temple to an open altar, was also analyzed. The result of our considerations point to recognize a solar cult as the fulcrum of the religious life of this pre-urban settlement. Astronomical and History of Art considerations concerning the famous "Star Painting" let us hypothesize that the represented star could be the Sun and the geometrical representation of the solar disk could reflect a precise solar calendar, used by the people of Tuleilat al-Ghassul between the V and the IV millennium BC."
Appendix 5:
Aerial view of Rujm el-Hiri
Rujm el-Hiri (also, Rujm Hiri and Rujum al-Hiri) an Arabic word meaning ‘stone heap of the wild cat’ is the enormous ruin (under reconstruction) of a Megalithic site/monument comprising a series of 4, 5 (or 9, depending on how counted) approximate concentric stone circles with a tumulus (artificial burial mound) at the centre. It has been identified as a ceremonial complex. It is located 515 metres above sea level on the Golan Heights approximately 16 kilometres (10 miles) from the Sea of Galilee, Syria. Based on the few artifacts recovered it has been dated to circa 3000 BCE (Late Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age). The function of Rujm el-Hiri is not known. One theory is it served as a landmark for a mortuary cult associated with an important leader or religious figure. The paucity of artifacts recovered indicates the site was not used as either a residence or as a storage facility.
The concentric circles are constructed from an estimated 42000 rocks/stones (uncut, black volcanic basalt, field stones); piled and wedged into place. The outermost circle is 150 metres (490 feet) in diameter (measured north-south). (Note: Other measurements given are 155 metres (500 feet) north-south.) The walls are between 3.2-3.3 metres (10.5-10.8 feet) thick, and in places reach 2.5 metres (8 feet) in height. (Note: Other measurements given are the walls reach a height of 2 metres (6 feet) in places.) Some of the rings are connected by a series of 36 apparently randomly spaced spoke-like walls, which comprise chambers. The central burial mound, built 1000-1500 years after the construction of the rings (the Late Bronze Age of the late 2nd millennium BCE) is an irregular stone heap measuring some 20-25 metres (65-80 feet) in diameter and 4.5-5 metres (15-16 feet) in height. There are 2 wide access ways, blocked by fallen boulders, (northeastern opening about 29 metres (95 feet) wide; southeastern opening about 26 metres (85 feet) wide.) into the rings.
The circular structure was built with dimensions and scales common for other structures of the period. It is indicated it was – at least in part – built for an astronomical purpose. Research indicates the structure is partly based on the positions of stars. It has been suggested the site was used for observations of stars/constellations for aiding religious calculations. After lengthy studies beginning in the late 1980s, Yonathan Mizrachi and Anthony Aveni proposed the structure could have served an astronomical purpose. Their investigations have shown the entrance way to the center is aligned to the summer solstice. Notches in the walls suggest the spring and fall equinoxes are indicated. Calculations for when the proposed astronomical alignments would have matched stars gives further support for the construction of the rings being dated to circa 3000 BCE. If the wall notches pointed to star-risings they may have been a method for predicting the rainy season (important for pastoralists herding livestock, with concerns for pasture/forage and water).
Abstract: Aveni, Anthony. And Yonathan, Mizrachi. (1998). "The Geometry and Astronomy of Rujm el-Hiri: a Megalithic Site in the Southern Levant." (Journal of Field Archaeology, Volume 25, Number 4, Pages 475-496).:
"Research at Rujm el-Hiri, a Bronze Age megalithic monument in the southern Levant provides a broad insight into two episodes in the prehistory of the Levant—the construction and usage of the Early Bronze Age (EBA) ceremonial complex, and the erection of a cairn at the center of the monument some 1500 years later. (The last use of Rujm el-Hiri was no later than 1500-1200 BCE (the Late Bronze Age).) Excavations in 1988–1991 provide information on Rujm el-Hiri's geometry, alignment associations between the architecture of the complex and celestial bodies and events, physical elements in the landscape, and local ecology-related phenomena. We also examine the significance of timekeeping and its implications for the agricultural calendar and cosmological domains of the local cultures. Data drawn from archaeological, astronomical, ethnohistorical, and biblical sources reveal the sophistication of the 3rd millennium B.C. construction phase of the Rujm el-Hiri complex. Among the finds reported are the systematic use of a measuring unit to construct the site; the establishment of an accurate alignment system for both celestial and non-celestial elements in the landscape; the organization of an orientation calendar as a basis for economic activities; and the hints of a rich cosmology. Overall, our study of the Rujm el-Hiri megalithic phenomena reveals a level of cultural complexity not previously documented in the Levant of the 3rd millennium B.C."
Appendix 6:
Some recent articles dealing with early Canaanite astral mythology and astral worship include:
Holladay, Junior., John. (1968). "The Day(s) the Moon Stood Still." (Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 87, Number 2, June, Pages 166-178).
Zatelli, Ida. (1991). "Astrology and Worship of Stars in the Hebrew Bible." (Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Band 103, Pages 86-99).
Jeffers, Ann. (1996). Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria.
Dijkstra, Meindert. (1998). "Astral Myth of the Birth of Shahar and Shalim (KTU 1.23)." In: Dietrich, Manfred. and Kottsieper, Ingo. (Editors). "Und Moses shrieb dieses Lied auf: Studien zum Alten Testament und zum Alten Orient. (Pages 265-287).
Smith, Mark. (2003). "Astral Religion and the Representation of Divinity: The Cases of Ugarit and Judah." In: Noegel, S., Walker, J., and Wheeler, B. (Editors). Prayer, Magic and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique World. (Pages 187-206).
Jeffers, Ann. (2007). "Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel." (Religion Compass, Volume 1, Number 6, November, Pages 628-642).
Cooley, Jeffrey. (2011). "Astral Religion in Ugarit and Ancient Israel." (Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Volume 70, Number 2, Pages 281-287).
Cooley, Jeffrey. (2012). "Celestial Divination in Ugarit and Ancient Israel: A Reassessment." (Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Volume 71, Number 1, April, Pages 21-30).
[I am indebted to the American archaeoastronomer Dr Sara L. Gardner for corrections concerning her ideas, clarification regarding dating issues, and for generously providing me with a copy of her 2002 doctoral thesis. In early September 2009 Sara Gardner kindly sent me a corrective e-mail and copy of her doctoral thesis. This has enabled a number of significant corrections and clarifications not possible when I was relying on secondary sources and (at January 2007) my 4-5 year old recollections of Sara Gardner's work that she had discussed with me. In all about 12 corrections have been made. I will expand this topic and better clarify some issues mentioned above when I closely read her doctoral thesis.]
Copyright © 2007-2012 by Gary D. Thompson
This Web Page was last updated on: Friday, April 27, 2012, 11:00 pm.
This Web Page was created using Arachnophilia 4.0 and FrontPage 2003.
You can reach me here by email: 